Buddhism

Buddhism was first introduced to Vietnam in the 2nd century, and reached its peak in the Ly dynasty (11th century). It was then regarded as the official religion dominating court affairs. Buddhism was preached broadly among the population and it enjoyed a profound influence on people's daily life. Its influence also left marks in various areas of traditional literature and architecture. As such, many pagodas and temples were built during this time.

At the end of the 14th century, Buddhism began to show signs of decline. The ideological influence of Buddhism, however, remained very strong in social and cultural life. Presently, over 70 percent of the population of Vietnam are either Buddhist or strongly influenced by Buddhist practices.

Confucianism in Vietnam

While it is more a religious philosophy than an organized religion, Confucianism (Nho Giao, or Khong Tu) has been an important force in shaping Vietnam's society, everyday lives, and beliefs of its people.

What is Confucianism? Confucius lived from 551-479 BCE. He was born in the small state of Lu that rose out of the remains of the Chou Dynasty. Being that he lived during the decline of the Chou period he was interested in bringing stability back into society. Confucius didn't have a regular teacher but he managed to get an education none the less and grew to be a scholar. By the time he was in his twenties he had already begun to attract a small following of students. He worked in his own state of Lu as a clerk for a time accounting for grains and animals in the state. In his thirties or forties he traveled to the capital of the state of Chou where he is said to have met with Lau Tsu the father of Taoism. At that time Lao Tsu worked in the archives in Chou and Confucius went there to consult him on ceremonies. It is interesting to note that Buddha, Lau Tsu and Confucius were all living at the same time. Confucius went through his life teaching his pupils’ part time and filling a variety of posts from clerk to advisor to a Minister of Public works. Many of his pupils went on to fill very high level jobs in government. Confucius was never extremely successful himself and by the time of his death, in 479 BCE, some say that he even thought of himself as a failure. This is because he never achieved a position in government that allowed him to put his ideas to work. He wanted to bring China back to the peaceful days of the "sage Kings". This was a time in Chinese History when Kings ruled peaceful organized kingdoms. They were peaceful because everyone knew their station in life and acted accordingly.

During his life Confucius wrote two works and edited six others. He is said to have written the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Ten Wings of the Book of Changes better known as the I Ching. But this is subject to debate. What we know for sure of Confucius and Confucianism comes from three books, the most famous of which is called the Analects which is a book that was put together by his pupils some time after his death. The book contains conversations that he had with his students and advice that he gave to various rulers when he was working as an Advisor. The other two books are the Great Learning and the Doctrine of Mean. His works don't speak of spiritual beings, fate, or supernatural feats. They focus instead on the importance of education, morality, moderation, faithfulness, history and filial piety. So these works put together by his students are the basis of the concept of Confucianism. Now we need to look at what was stressed in these works to understand what Confucianism is.

Confucius felt that people were naturally good but needed education and a good example set by their superiors to keep them that way. His teachings stress a set of ethical rules based on five basic relationships or moral bonds: Father/Son, Subject/Ruler, Husband/Wife, Elder Brother/Younger Brother and Friend/Friend. Confucian society is a hierarchy starting at the family level and working it's way all the way up the emperor. In a Confucian society one models himself on those who are above him in the hierarchy. Everyone in the society is responsible for setting the proper example for that subordinate to them as well as having a proper relationship and being subordinate to those superior to them in the hierarchy. The Emperor is responsible for setting the ultimate example for all of his subjects. The Emperor rules by a "Mandate of Heaven" and is considered to be the son of heaven and morally perfect. In this type of society social improvement starts with the emperor and works it's way down to the people. The emperor then takes the responsibly for the entire well being of the society. The Closest that Confucianism gets to the supernatural is the mention of heaven so it is not so much a religion as it is a moral philosophy. Confucius believed that when force and punishment have to be used in a society that the social system has broken down:
"Lead the people with governmental measures and regulate them by law and punishment, and they will avoid wrongdoing but have no sense of honor and shame. Lead them by virtue and regulate them by the rules of propriety and they will have a sense of shame, and, moreover, will set themselves right." Government by example not by law and punishment.

A few centuries after the death of Confucius five of the books that he was supposed to have worked on were collected together and called the Five Classics. One book was on poetry, one was on rituals, two were on history and the last was the famous I Ching or Book of Changes. The I Ching is on cosmology and divination. By the twelfth century four more books were added to the "Confucianism" inventory. The Analects, two more books on rituals and a book by a man named Mencious who was a devout follower of Confucius. Together, these nine books were considered to contain all the information necessary to live a good, moral, Confucian life. These books were also supposed to contain a description of the Chou Dynasty, an ideal era in Chinese history when society had reached it's most perfect state, about 500 BCE.

There was a school of thought that ran in direct opposition to Confucianism. This was known as Legalism. Where as Confucianism believed that people were naturally good, Legalism believed that they were naturally bad. Legalism believed that people only reacted to their craving for pleasure and the fear of pain and punishment. The Legalists believed that without a set of strong laws with harsh punishments society would go out of control. The Legalists were against self-cultivation as in education. They had a great dislike for scholars and merchants to the point that they felt they should be eliminated. In the early Han dynasty both of these schools of thought had many followers and were both competing to be the sanctioned school of thought. Confucianism prevailed in 136 BCE when his advisors finally convinced Emperor Wudi that Confucianism was the superior school. Soon, emperor Wudi set up an imperial Confucian academy to train officials.

An examination system spread throughout China and these books became the basis for these examinations. The preliminary examination was held at the county level. If this exam was passed the candidate was able to move on to the first level of examinations held at the Prefecture City. If the prefecture level exam was passed then the candidate would receive the lowest level degree. With this degree came the privilege of having the candidate’s social class raised to that of gentry. He would also be exempt from corvee labor and corporal punishment. Of course the candidate would now be eligible to take the second level of examinations which were held at the provincial capital. Here the candidate was locked into a cubicle with food and water and his test and he stayed there until he had finished. Only about 1 in 100 would pass this level of testing. If the candidate passed this exam then he earned a position to take the final exam that was held at the imperial capital. This exam was only given once every three years. The lucky few that passed the final exam then had an interview with the emperor who hand picked finalists for the highest official posts. A man would study the Confucian texts into his late twenties or early thirties before he would be ready to begin the examination system. This meant hours and hours of rigorous study everyday. In theory the examination system provided a non-discriminatory way for anyone to raise their status and obtain an official post in the government allowing the best qualified to move forward no matter what their status. The examination system allowed anyone who passed the test, be they peasant, farmer, merchant or the upper class to move into a position of authority. Anyone could rise to the highest ranks if they simply passed the exams. However in reality a subsistence farmer would never have enough time to study the amount needed to pass such rigorous exams. So for the most part, although success stories did exist, The gentry class stayed gentry and the lower class remained lower.

What we now today as the northern part of Vietnam was first annexed by the Chinese in 207 BCE.(fig.1) This was the beginning of more than one thousand years of Chinese rule and Vietnamese rebellion. During this long period Vietnam was influenced by China's technology as well as it’s culture. Vietnam never lost her self identity but she did absorb many things from China, some more than others and one of the things that she did readily accept and implement was Confucianism and the examination system. In 939 the Vietnamese rebel forces were able to push the Chinese out in one of many battles between the two but this time Vietnam became an independence state. Her more than eleven hundred years of Chinese rule was finally over. At this time Confucianism shared a place at the royal court along with Taoism and Buddhism. By the fifteenth century Confucianism dominated the Vietnamese court. Since Confucianism wasn't a religion per se, many people chose to adopt Taoism and Buddhism to fulfil their religious needs. Confucianism became the foundation of Vietnam's educational system. It set the structure for family organization; it was the authority for and the confirmation of an entire way of life. Confucianism helped Vietnam to form its worldview. Once when a steam ship came into the harbor the residents ran to tell the local Mandarin. After listening to their description the Mandarin studied his Confucian books and after sometime came to the conclusion that it was a dragon and dismissed it. In Vietnam, those that passed the first level of examinations were rewarded with being exempt from corvee labor for five years. The few that passed all levels of the exams were known as Mandarins and became civil officials in the bureaucracy. There were about 3500 mandarins in Northern Vietnam in the 1700's.

In 1663 the Le court in Vietnam published a document called "The Forty-Seven Rules for Teaching and Changing". This was an effort to spread Confucian values to all the people in the country. This document called for families to regulate themselves by setting a good example for their children. Children were to obey parents. Wives were to be submissive to their husbands. Younger brothers were to show the proper respect to their older brothers. Children were to take care of their parents when they grew old and were to perform the proper rituals after they died. These were all Confucian ideas revisited.

One of the best examples of Vietnamese law codes superseding those learned from the Chinese was in the rights of women. Under the Confucian system in China wives were subservient to their husbands. Any property owned by a family belonged to the husband since he was the patriarch of the family unit. Women were treated much better under the Vietnamese legal system than that of the Chinese. In Vietnam women were allowed to inherit property along with their brothers. This was unheard of in China where all of a family’s inheritance was dived between the sons only. Vietnamese laws also ruled that the property of a husband and wife be managed equally between them and not just by the husband as it was in China. This shows the greater respect given to the role of women in Vietnamese society which is more similar to the way women are treated in other Southeast Asian countries.

Confucianism’s promotion of self-cultivation, especially the study of history, particularly interested the Vietnamese Mandarins. They were careful to keep detailed records of all past Chinese invasions. They were determined to not let this happen again and hoped that these records would help to keep them from repeating history.

In present times we have seen different political ideologies come and go through China and Vietnam. However the foundation of Confucianism remains.

Taoism

Taoism (sometimes written as Daoism) originated in China and is based on the philisophy of Laotse (Thai Thuong Lao Quan). Laotse lived in the 6th cenery BC. little is known about Laotse and there is some question as to whether or not he really existed. He is believed to have been the custodian of the imperial archives for the Chinese government.

Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of "Taoism." In some countries and contexts (for example, the national "Taoism" organizations of China and Taiwan), the label has come to be applied to the Chinese folk religion, which would otherwise not have a readily-recognizable English name. However many, if not most, of its practitioners would not recognize "Taoism" (in any language) as the name of their religion. Moreover, the several forms of what we might call "elite" or "organized" Taoism often distinguish their ritual activities from those of the folk religion, which professional "Taoists" (Daoshi) tend to view as debased.

Beliefs

According to the Taoist cosmology, Ngoc Hoang, the emperor of Jade whose abode is in the heaven, rules over a world of divinities, genies, spirits and demons in which the forces of nature are incarnated as a supernatural beings and great historical personages have become gods. It is the aspect of Raoism that has become assimiliated into the daily lives of most Vietnamese as a collection of supersition and mystical and animistic beliefs.

History

Depending on how it is defined, Taoism's origins may be traced to the prehistoric Chinese religion; to the composition of the Daodejing (third or fourth century BCE); or to the activity of Zhang Daoling (second century CE). Alternatively, one could argue that "Taoism" as a religious identity only arose later, by way of contrast with the newly-arrived religion of Buddhism, or with the fourth-century codification of the Shangching and Lingbao texts.

Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE)

Zhang Daoling began receiving new revelations from Laozi in 142 CE, and founded the Tianshi ("Celestial Masters") sect around them. He performed spiritual healing, and collected dues of "five pecks of rice" from his followers (thus providing an alternative name for his movement). Zhang Daoling's major message was that the world-order as his followers knew it would soon come to an end, and be succeeded by an era of "Great Peace" (Taiping). In fact their activities did hasten the downfall of the Han dynasty. The same could be said of their contemporaries and fellow Taoists, the Yellow Turban sect. Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state in what is now Sichuan province. Today's Zhengyi sect claims continuity with Zhang Daoling.

Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in 166 CE. The Yin and Yang and "five elements" theories date from this time, but were not yet integrated into Taoism.

The name Daojia comes from the Han Dynasty. In Sima Qian's history (ch. 63) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi. Daojiao came to be applied to the religious movements mentioned above. The two terms were used interchangeably until modern times. (We owe the distinction to Confucian writers.) The earliest commentary on the Daodejing is actually that of Heshang Gong (the "Riverside Master"), a religious Taoist.

Six Dynasties (316-589)

The Huahujing ("Scripture of Conversion of Barbarians") claimed that Laozi went to India, where he taught less advanced doctrines under the name of Buddha. Buddhists found its premise objectionable, and emperors regularly condemned it. A similar claim is made in the Xishengjing (the "Scripture of Western Ascension").

Tang Dynasty (618-907)

Emperor Tang Gaozong added the Daodejing to the list of "classics" (jing, 經) to be studied for the imperial examinations; hence the appearance of -jing in its title.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

The Quanzhen school of Taoism was founded during this period, and together with the Zhengyi Celestial Masters is one of the two schools of Taoism that have survived to the present.

The Song Dynasty saw an increasingly complex interaction between the elite traditions of organised Taoism as practised by ordained Taoist ministers (daoshi) and the local traditions of folk religion as practised by spirit mediums (wu) and a new class of non-ordained ritual experts known as fashi. This interaction manifested itself in the integration of 'converted' local deities into the bureaucratically organised Taoist pantheon and the emergence of new exorcistic rituals, including the Celestial Heart Rites and the Thunder Rites.

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1367)

Nationalist Period (1912-1949)

Adherents

The number of "Taoists" is difficult to estimate, partly for definitional reasons (who counts as a Taoist?), and partly for practical ones (it is illegal for private parties to conduct surveys in China). The number of people practicing some aspect of the Chinese folk religion might number in the hundreds of millions. (Adherents.com estimates "Traditional Chinese religion" at nearly four hundred million). The number of people patronizing Daoshi (Taoist "priests" or masters) would be smaller by several orders of magnitude, while the number of literary Daojia would be smaller yet. At the same time, most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition.

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: inland China, Taiwan, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and these countries' folk religions have many common elements. "Organized" Taoism seems not to have attracted a non-Chinese following until modern times.

Relations with other religions and philosophies

The origins of Taoism and Confucianism are intimately related. The authorship of the Daodejing is traditionally assigned to Laozi, a teacher of Confucius, yet appears to be reacting against Confucian doctrine (suggesting a younger date). The term Dao is by no means exclusively Taoist, but was used in several schools of ancient Chinese philosophy--including Confucianism--to indicate their views on the proper conduct of individuals, the nature of human society, and the relationship of humans with the universe as a whole.

These early Taoist texts reject numerous basic assumptions of Confucianism, embracing instead values based on nature, individualism, and spontaneity. They express great skepticism toward morality, benevolence, and other Confucian virtues; and are similarly mistrustful of hierarchical social structures and indeed, governments. (Zhuangzi argues that the proponents of benevolence and morality are usually found at the gates of feudal lords who have stolen their kingdoms.)

Buddhism similarly found itself transformed from a competitor of Taoism, to a fellow inhabitant of the Chinese cultural ecosystem. Originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism, its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Chan Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism. In the Tang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of emptiness, and the amassing of a vast collection of scripture into tripartite organization.

Ideological and political rivals in ancient times, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism have nevertheless deeply influenced one another, and eventually achieved a kind of modus vivendi in which each has its own particular ecological niche within Chinese society. With time, most Chinese people likewise came to identify to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalized by the time of the Song dynasty, when aspects of the three schools were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.

Taoist thought partly inspired Legalist philosophers, whose theories where used by Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of Hanfeizi, a prominent Legalist thinker who commented on the Tao Te Ching. Hanfeizi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.

Taoism may have inherited some shamanic practices from ancient Chinese traditions. At the same time, Taoist leaders have sometimes viewed Central Asian shamans as rivals.

In spreading Catholic Christianity to China, Jesuit Matteo Ricci sought to ally the Church with Confucianism. In so doing the Jesuits encouraged the view that China lacked a high religion of its own (since Confucianism was not regarded as such). Until well into the twentieth century, Christians have tended to view religious Taoism as a hodgepodge of primitive superstitions, or even as a form of demonolatry.

In the last century or so, Taoism (along with Confucianism and Buddhism) has become incorporated into the theology of the Way of Former Heaven sects, notably Yiguandao. The same could be said with respect to Vietnam's religion of Caodaism.

Western New Agers have embraced some aspects of Taoism: the name and concept of "Tao", the names and concepts of yin and yang; an appreciation for Laozi and Zhuangzi, and a respect for other aspects of Chinese tradition such as qigong. At the same time, Western appropriations differ in subtle (or not so subtle) ways from their Asian sources. For example, the word "Tao" is used in numerous book titles which are connected to Chinese culture only tangentially. Examples would include Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics, or Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh.

Catholicism

Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 17th century. At present the most densely-populated Catholic areas are Bui Chu-Phat Diem in the northern province of Ninh Binh and Ho Nai-Bien Hoa in Dong Nai Province to the South. About 10 percent of the population are considered Catholic.

 
Protestantism

Protestantism was introduced to Vietnam at about the same time as Catholicism. Protestantism, however, remains an obscure religion. At present most Protestants live in the Central Highlands. There still remains a Protestant church on Hang Da Street in Hanoi. The number of Protestants living in Vietnam is estimated at 400,000.

Islam

Islamic followers in Vietnam are primarily from the Cham ethnic minority group living in the central part of the central coast. The number of Islamic followers in Vietnam totals about 50,000.

Caodaism

Caodaism was first introduced to the country in 1926. Settlements of the Cao Dai followers in South Vietnam are located near the Church in Tay Ninh. The number of followers of this sect is estimated at 2 million.

Hoa Hao Sect

The Hoa Hao Sect was first introduced to Vietnam in 1939. More than 1 million Vietnamese are followers of this sect. Most of them live in the south-west of Vietnam.

Mother Worship (Tho Mau)

Researchers describe the Vietnamese mother-worship cult as a primitive religion. Mother, Me in the Vietnamese language, is pronounced Mau in Sino-­script. The mother worship cult might be originated from the cult of the Goddess in ancient ages. In the Middle Ages, the Mother was worshipped in temples and palaces. Due to the fact that it is a worshipping custom and not a religion, the Mother worshipping cult has not been organized as Buddhism and Catholicism have. As a result, the different affiliations of the cult have yet to be consistent and different places still have different customs.
The custom of Mother worship originated from the north. In the south, the religion has integrated the local goddesses such as Thien Y A Na (Hue) and Linh Son (Tay Ninh).

In fact, the Mother worship cult was influenced by other religions, mainly Taoism.

Ancestor Worship

Vietnamese ancestor worship dates from before the arrival of Confucianism or Buddhism. Ancestor worship is based on the belief that the soul lives on after death and becomes the protector of its descendants. Because of the influ­ence the spirits of one's ancestors exert on the living, it is considered not only shameful for the spirits to be upset or restless, but downright dangerous. Traditionally , the Vietnamese worship and honour the spirits of their ancestors regularly, especia ly on the anniversary of their death. To request help for success in business or on behalf of asick child, sacrifices and prayers are given to the ancestra l spirits. Imp ortant worship elements are the family altar and a phot of land whose income is setaide for the support of the ancestors.